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The clusters in most of the cases were found homogeneous in ethnic composition. The settlements of dalits were found isolated from the other caste groups in Bajhang and Dolpa district, although the former have been the main service providers in the community for generations. However, in Achham district, different caste groups were found more or less intermingled in the same community. The socioeconomic status of the people appeared rather bleak with widespread illiteracy, poor health conditions, high dependency burden, few livelihood options and less income even for bare subsistence. Gender disparity of the subordinate status of women was evident even by a cursory look. Women were found to be deprived of most opportunities whilst enduring conditions of restricted mobility, engaging primarily in domestic chores with heavier workloads and longer working hours than their male counterparts. Women also appeared underprivileged in terms of their accessibility to education exemplified by the fact that no female students were found to be studying in higher secondary school or college. Male were found to have acquired a comparatively higher level of education due to better accessibility to both formal and/or non-formal education. In absolute terms, most people in the study locales are resource poor with varying intensities of food insecurity. The study, however, sought to further scrutinize the socioeconomic conditions of the people with respect to the possession of private property, social decent, employment and food security status and thereby categorize the people into relatively well off, fair off and poor off groups. The majority of the populations in the study areas are poor with deteriorating living conditions. Small land holding sizes and a lack of alternative income opportunities were recognized to be the underlying causes of poverty and food insecurity amongst the people. Agriculture is the mainstay of the rural subsistence economy. Farming systems constitute an integrated assemblage of crops, livestock and forestry components. Although a range of crops and the cropping patterns are adopted by the farmers, cereal crops such as rice and wheat dominate the cropping pattern and are the major food staples. With rice being the most preferred cereal, it covers the largest area of cultivation followed by wheat in Bajhang and Maize in Achham district. Vegetable and fruit cultivation is still in the stage of rarity. On-farm production of food grains is insufficient for the majority households. The additional requirement of food grains is provided through seasonal off-farm work. Although livestock constitute an integral component of the farming system, its potential contribution to livelihoods is under-exploited. Every farm household maintains at least one or two species of livestock for multiple objectives of getting food, cash, power and manure for farming. The livestock feeding is entirely based on the availability of crop by-products, fodder and forages from the farmland and forests. Livestock productivity is constrained by the dominance of traditional breeds, poor management, poor animal health facilities and a lack of market. Forests and rivers are the major common property resources in the study areas. Forests contribute significantly to the alimentation of the rural households in all three districts. Every household regardless of economic class depends on the forest for fuel, fodder, timber as well as food to some extent. The commercial exploitation of non-timber forest products was found to have commenced only in recent years. However, people's accessibility seemed inequitable even in the community forestry areas. The tapping of available water resources was confined to small hydropower plants for rural electrification and for milling through Ghatta in limited areas. Small springs have been tapped for drinking water and some of the small rivers were found to have been diverted for irrigation purposes. A difficult geophysical setting and a lack of capital investment and organized efforts have been the major obstacles in harnessing water resources for livelihood enhancement activities. Infrastructures in the three districts are poorly developed, in terms of both physical and service infrastructures. Roads, irrigation canals, drinking water supplies, school buildings, health centers and telecommunications all need substantial improvements for the long-term development prospects of the inhabitants. People have adapted to the condition of abject poverty and food insecurity by way of income diversification, eating adjustments and social safety nets. Seasonal migration to Indian cities was found to be the prime source of supplementary household income and hence the principal way of fighting hunger. However, some micro-enterprises based on local materials and caste based traditional skills have also been contributing to some extent to the livelihood of the poor and occupational caste groups. Other ways the people cope with the food insecurity situations include skipping meals, eating wild and inferior foods, borrowing loans, borrowing food grains and the selling of assets. Amidst
the bleak scenario, this study has come up with a horizon of hopes of
improving people's subsistence through agricultural interventions. There
is a potential of improving the farming sector through good extension
services including the promotion of regenerating technologies such as
composting, crop diversification, agroforestry etc. Promotion of low-bulk
high-value crops, enhancement of traditional skills, breed upgrading of
livestock, provision of veterinary services, market networking for NTFPs
and promotion of community forestry with equitable access are further
areas of intervention with potential for enhancing sustainable livelihoods.
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